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A FEW SECRETS OF THE 
METALLURGIST 
SIMPLY TOLD 


ATLAS CRUCIBLE 

PUBLISHERS 


CO. 


DUNKIRK, N. Y 








A FEW SECRETS OF THE 


M ETALLURGIST 

SI M PLY TOLD 


BY 

GERALD W. HINKLEY, M. E. 

«\ 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
ORDNANCE ENGINEER 
AND ASSISTANT TO PRESIDENT 
ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO. 
DUNKIRK, N . Y. 



F I R ST EDITION 


T Wlon 


COPYWRIGHTED 1918 
b y 

PR E SS Q- F D U MKWK N 6 C-OMPAHV 


\ 



< C 
f ( ( 


OCT -2 ISIS 


©CI.A536027 



PREFACE. 


This is not and is not intended to be a 
thoroughly complete explanation or dis¬ 
cussion of the allotropic theory of iron 
and steel, but rather a brief outline of a 
few of the great principles of metallurgy 
written primarily for the layman. If 
without leading him astray from the real 
scientific understanding of the subject we 
have succeeded in briefly but satisfactorily 
answering the old familiar question, 
“Why do steels harden?”, we will in a 
large measure, have accomplished our pur¬ 
pose. 

Besides the personal observations which 
the writer has made from time to time in 
the metallurgical laboratory, he has avail¬ 
ed himself freely of the works of many 
and eminent authors dealing with this 
subject and where disputable conditions 
have arisen in regard to certain theories, 
uses, etc., has attempted to adopt the 
most logical consensus of opinion. 


G. W. H. 





CONTEXTS. 


A FEW SECRETS OF THE 
METALLURGIST 
SIMPLY TOLD. 


Page 

INTRODUCTION .17 

CHAPTER I. 

A Slight Test of the Imagina¬ 
tion . 19 

CHAPTER II. 

Comparsion Between Conditions 
Which Exist in the Iron and 
Steel Family to Those Which 
Exist with More Familiar Ele¬ 
ments .22 

CHAPTER III. 

An Experiment Performed with 
a Piece of Pearletic Steel. . . .29 







CONTENTS. 


Page 

CHAPTER IV. 

High Speed Steel.51 

CHAPTER V. 

The General Effect of the More 
Important Elements in Tool 
Steels .61 

Carbon Steels .61 

Alloy Steels.63 

High Speed Steels.64 

Elements Which Occur in all 
Steels .66 

Iron.66 

Carbon .67 

Manganese.67 

Silicon .6.S 

Phosphorus .69 

Sulphur.70 

Elements Which Have Become 
Especially Associated with 
Special Alloy Steels.70 
















CONTENTS. 


Chromium . 
Tungsten . . 
Molybdenum 
Vanadium . . 


Page 

. .70 

. .72 

. .73 

. .73 


Cobalt. 74 

Uranium Titanium and Alumi¬ 
num ... 75 


Impurities . 

Heat Treatment 
Hardening. 

Annealing. 

Tempering . 

Conclusion. 


75 


7/ 

79 

81 

84 


CHAPTER VI. 

What Tool Steel Is Doing To¬ 
wards Winning the War. 85 















CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX. 

Analysis, Uses and Heat Treat¬ 
ment of Various Grades of 


Tool Steels.92 

High Speed Steels.93 

Die Steel for Hot Work.94 

Special Alloy Steel.95 

Semi-High Speed Steel.96 

Simple Carbon Tool Steel.97 

Non-Shrinking Oil Hardening 
Steel.9S 


Special Hot Work Alloy Steel. .99 

















A FEW SECRETS OF THE 
METALLURGIST 
SIMPLY TOLD 


INTRODUCTION. 

When as a student at a Technical Col¬ 
lege of one of our great Universities, I 
came to the study of Differential and 
Integral Calculus, I remember that I 
was seized with a kind of mental paraly¬ 
sis at the thought of the great unknown 
that lay before me. Fortunately, how¬ 
ever, a little book was brought to my 
attention, under the encouraging title 
“Calculus Made Easy”. As a matter 
of fact the little volumne did not attempt 
to take its readers through all the in¬ 
tricacies of the entire subject, but it did 
succeed in giving a certain start on the 
long journey which has to be under¬ 
gone by a student of the Calculus. Its 
opening sentence was encouraging, 
which I have always remembered, and 
which read something as follows: 


“What one fool can accomplish, 
another fool can do, therefore take 
courage". This same thought applies 
to the subject which is now before us. 


— 18 — 


CHAPTER I. 


A SLIGHT TEST OF THE IMAGINATION. 

We live in a world in which certain 
conditions of the atmosphere and the 
so-called elements surrounding our 
daily existence, are entirely familiar to 
us. From force of habit we are likely 
to forget that had Nature, for instance, 
been planned under a different range 
of livable temperatures, all the familiar 
objects of our daily existence would 
have existed under entirely different 
form. 

For instance, if the normal tempera¬ 
ture had been about 2700 degrees 
Fahrenheit instead of about 60 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and we had been construct¬ 
ed so that we could comfortably en¬ 
dure that degree of temperature, we 
could have 'gone sailing on a sea of 
molten iron, in boats built of plumbago 
crucibles, and oars made of silica brick. 


- -19 


Under these delightful conditions we 
could place frozen lumps of our sea 
of iron in our ice boxes for refrigera¬ 
tion. Flat irons and stove lids would 
therefore have been the product of the 
ice man. The water with which we are 
now familiar, of course, could not exist 
in its liquid form, or even as steam, but 
instead as a highly gaseous state, which 
we would probably have been called 
upon to breathe. Certain other sub¬ 
stances with which we are perfectly 
familiar in our daily life, such as the 
common stick sulphur, for instance, 
would exist in an entirely different 
physical state, although their chemical 
properties would be entirely unchanged, 
and we would be given to understand 
that an “allotropic” transformation had 
taken place. 

If we can now imagine ourselves as 
existing under the relative conditions 
described above, which are undoubtedly 
the “natural” conditions of some other 
world, it will then be easy for us to 
understand quite clearly some of the 


— 20 — 


other “allotropic” forms of 
steel than those with which 
present familiar. 


iron and 
we are at 


CHAPTER II. 


COMPARSION BETWEEN CONDITIONS WHICH 
EXIST IN THE IRON AND STEEL FAMI¬ 
LY TO THOSE WHICH EXIST WITH 
MORE FAMILIAR ELEMENTS. 

One of the first physical changes 
which we would discover would be that 
when we desired to “freeze" a “cru¬ 
cible’’ pailful of our iron water, we 
could do so much more easily if the 
same were in its absolutely pure state 
than we could if it were mixed with 
some other element, such as carbon. 
Of course, we have long known that 
this is the case with water and salt, and 
just as it becomes harder and harder to 
freeze water with greater and greater 
percentages of salt mixed with it, so 
the freezing of iron with greater and 
greater percentages of carbon mixed 
with it, would also occur at lower and 
lower temperatures. 


_ 22 _ 


If we started to add salt to a pail 
of water we, of course, would have dif¬ 
ferent degrees of brine. Just so with 
the addition of carbon to a crucible of 
pure iron, we would likewise have dif¬ 
ferent degrees of the resulting* mix¬ 
ture. In adding* the salt to the pailful 
of water, we would arrive at a point 
where the water had absorbed all of 
the salt which it was capable of holding 
at room temperature. If we had added 
a little less salt we would have had free 
water in excess of salt, and if we had 
added a little more salt it would have 
been impossible for the water to have 
dissolved it, and we would, therefore, 
have had salt in excess of water. 

For convenience we will call the mix¬ 
ture above mentioned, at which the 
water had become thoroughly saturat¬ 
ed with the salt, “cementite”, because 
this is the name which our friends, the 
metallurgists, have given to a similar 
mixture of iron and carbon. They call 
the water, “ferrite”; the salt, “carbide” 
and the resulting mixture of brine, 


— 23 — 


“cementite”. This mixture of iron and 
carbon always exists in exactly the 
same ratio, namely, 93.4% iron and 
6.6% carbon, and is expressed chemical¬ 
ly by the symbol Fe3C, which means, 
in other words, that three “atoms” of 
iron have united with one “ atom ” of 
carbon to form the “chemical com¬ 
pound'’, “iron carbide", which the me¬ 
tallurgists, as above mentioned, desire 
to term “Cementite". 

Now let us go back to the brine 
solution with which we are already 
familiar, and suppose that we added a 
little more salt than the water could 
absorb, and which therefore would exist 
in a “solid solution", and then bring this 
“mechanical mixture" to such a low 
temperature that it would actually 
“freeze". For convenience, and in 
order to agree with the metallurgists 
again, let us call the resulting structure 
“pearlite". That is the name which 
they have given to a corresponding 
“mechanical mixture" of cementite and 
ferrite. 


• 24 — 


This new constituent “pearlite” con¬ 
tains approximately 0.9% carbon and 
consists of inter-stratitied layers or 
bands of ferrite and cementite. 

It is regarded as a separate and dis¬ 
tinct constituent of steel, and takes its 
name from the fact that it has a mother of 
pearl-like appearance under the micros¬ 
cope. It always occurs at a definite range 
of temperature and always contains the 
above mentioned definite percentage 
of carbon. 

From the above it may be suspected 
that a steel containing 0.9% carbon, 
consisting entirely of pearlite, forms 
rather a special and particular class of 
steels, which the metallurgists have de¬ 
cided to dignify with the title “Eutec- 
toid Steels". Having done this much 
to properly impress the unsuspecting 
probers of their secrets, they decided 
to call steels containing less than this 
Eutectoid ratio of carbon (0.9% C) 
“Hypo-eutectoid Steels". These steels, 
of course, contain certain definite 


amounts of pearlite with other amounts 
of free or excess ferrite. Likewise, if 
the carbon content is greater than 0.9% 
there will be an excess of cementite 
over the ferrite and we will then have 
a structure of pearlite plus free cemen¬ 
tite. And these steels are spoken of 
as “hyper-eutectoide” steels. 


— 26 — 



Hypo-eutectoicl Steel. Carbon .11%. Struc¬ 
ture: Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 
500 x 



Hypo-eutectoid Steel- Carbon .37%. Struc¬ 
ture: Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 
500 x " —27— 






Eutectoid Steel. Carbon .90%. Structure; Fine 
uniform Pearlitic condition. Mag. 500 x 



Hyper-eutectoid Steel. Carbon 1.20%. Struc¬ 
ture. Dark Pearlitic; White boundries— 
Cementite. Mag. 500 x 

— 28 —• 


CHAPTER III. 


AN EXPERIMENT PERFORMED WITH A 
PIECE OF PEARLETIC STEEL. 

However, let us not trouble ourselves 
with too many definitions at one time, 
but instead amuse ourselves for a while 
by running through a little experiment 
with a piece of carbon tool steel similar 
to that which we have just been dis¬ 
cussing. For our investigation we will 
also need a special kind of thermometer 
for measuring high temperatures. 
Such an instrument is known as a 
“pyrometer”. Now we will drill a little 
hole in the test piece of carbon steel 
and after inserting the “couple” of the 
pyrometer into it, place the same in 
the electric furnace. 

As the current is turned on, the test 
piece begins to grow warm and then 
hotter and hotter, gradually up through 

— 29 — 


a range of temperatures which are con¬ 
tinually recorded by the needle of the 
pyrometer. 800, 900, 1,000, 1,200 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit are uniformly reach¬ 
ed, and the temperature of our test 
piece continues to rise, as the absorp¬ 
tion of heat progresses. Suddenly, 
however, the test piece assumes a 
bright glow and the needle of the pyro¬ 
meter ceases to advance, and we note 
that it is pausing at about 1350 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Then after its pause, the 
advance is again resumed until the 
piece has become almost ready to melt. 
By plotting the uniform periods of time 
at which we read the different tempera¬ 
tures recorded by the needle of the 
pyrometer, against the temperatures 
as read, we would have a picture of our 
phenomenon something as follows: 


—3a— 


A 000 



SS 50 7S ZOO /4S /SO I7S 400 

Time Secomos 


Now let us begin to let our test piece 
cool off gradually. The temperature 
of the furnace is lowered and the uni¬ 
form range of cooling temperatures is 
recorded by the ever sensitive needle 
of the pyrometer. Suddenly as before, 
the test piece assumes the brilliant 
glow noted previously, and again the 
needle comes to rest, but this time we 
note that the recorded temperature is 
about 1250 degrees Fahrenheit instead 
of 1350 degrees Fahrenheit as before. 
Evidently there has been a certain 


—31— 





















tardiness or “lag’’ which has caused the 
phenomenon to take place a little too 
high going up and a little too low com¬ 
ing down, and in fact the metallurgists 
tell us that such is exactly the case, and 
that the real point in which we are in¬ 
terested lies just half way between the 
two points indicated, as we shall pre¬ 
sently see. If we again represent the 
results of our latest experiment graphi¬ 
cally, we would have a picture some¬ 
thing as Fig. 2. 

Zooo 
ISOO 
/ 800 
/TOO 
/600 
/soo 
' /400 

X 

/3oo 
/zoo 
J/oo 
JOOO 

ZS SO 7S too us ISO 175 ZOOj 
Ti me Seco/vps 

Now placing the second curve so ob- 



+/* 

/ 







/ 

t 

» 




0</R , 



I' 

*1 








F 

1* 
r- , 








\ 

r 

1 








» 

















, — 


i 


-* 




w 

’i 







7- 

\ 








* 

V 








— 32 — 




















tained on the first, we are able to 
study the following interesting rela¬ 
tionship. Fig. 3. 


2.00o 


1900 

!&oo 

1700 

1600 

7500 

0: 7400 

* 

**• 7300 

^ 7AOO 

J/Co 


/ 

/ 







1 

t 







1 

1 








1 

1 

1 







1 

\ 

Hj 







l 


V 







\ 

\ 


-—__ 










\ ^ 








•7 







/OOo 

/ 

A 

\ 








\ 

\ 








AS SO 7S /OO /AS 150 ITS A00 
77m e SecomoS 


It is natural to suspect that both of 
the parallel sections of our curves have 
something to do with the same thing, 
and for convenience since we noticed 
that mysterious glow of the test piece 
just as the needle came to rest, we 
might call the particular point which 
lies just half way between the tempera- 


■ 33 — 
























tures under discussion, the point of 
glow, or as the metallurgists call it, 
the “point of recalescense" and the 
range between these two temperatures 
the “critical range". 

I suppose it would be difficult to 
explain this phenomenon of the test 
piece unless we imagine that as the 
critical range is reached some internal 
reaction of the steel causes it to spon¬ 
taneously take on heat at the same 
temperature in the first place and give 
off the stored heat at the same temperature 
as the piece was being cooled down, 
and this heat caused it to glow as was 
noticed. Now if we were to experi¬ 
ment further with our piece while at 
the critical range, we would find cer¬ 
tain other remarkable changes, one of 
the most noticeable of which is the 
loss of magnetism at and above the 
critical range. 

Irons and steels are usually the most 
magnetic materials, but the attraction 
of the magnet is completely lost at or 
above the critical range. 


— 34 — 


We can easily satisfy ourselves in 
this respect by noting the attraction 
of a simple horse shoe magnet when 

our piece of test steel is brought into 
its magnetic field. As the pyrometer 
needle passes on up through the range 
of temperatures noted above, the mag¬ 
netic attraction is perfectly evident 
when suddenly the recalescence point 
is reached, the spell is broken and the 
magnet and the test piece fall apart. 
But let us just consider this phenomen¬ 
on a moment. We are told by the 
physicists that magnetism is induced 
in a piece of iron or steel by a “rear¬ 
rangement of the internal molecular 
structure, in which the positive ions 
face one direction and the negative ions 
in the opposite direction". Therefore, 
if magnetism suddenly ceases to exist 
it would seem as if something had hap¬ 
pened to the “internal molecular struc¬ 
ture" of the test piece. Thus when the 
recalescence point is reached we may 
conclude that something more than a 
mere absorption of heat units has taken 


— 35 — 


place. In fact we may really believe 
that an actual internal molecular re¬ 
volution has occurred and that some 
of the natural laws which formerly had 
governed all of these little molecules 
which go to make up the whole piece 
of steel, have been overthrown and that 
the molecules are more or less free to 
set up a new form of government for 
themselves, and that, therefore, when 
a piece of steel is brought to the re- 
calescence point it is really in a very 
sensitive condition. In fact, if we 
should care to investigate further we 
should find that certain other great 
changes take place at this critical point, 
such, for instance, as partial failure of 
the test piece to conduct an electric 
current, which formerly, of course, it 
did with great ease. Also when the 
critical range is reached, a peculiar con¬ 
traction of size interrupts the gradual 
expansion which had been developing 
as the test piece absorbed heat units, 
and therefore these several observa¬ 
tions give us reason to believe that our 


— 36 — 


conclusions as noted above must be 
more or less correct. 

Now if all steels acted exactly like 
the little test piece which we have been 
observing above as they were placed 
in the hardening furnace, it would not 
take us very much longer to finish our 
preliminary investigations. You re¬ 
member the piece of steel which we 
have been investigating was a piece 
of simple carbon tool steel, containing 
about 0.90% carbon. But all steels do 
not contain just this same percentage of 
carbon, and may also contain various 
elements other than carbon, all of which 
produce many and varied results dur¬ 
ing the process of heating, treating and 
hardening. 

In order to better visualize the in¬ 
vestigation which we are making, let 
us picture graphically each step which 
we take. If therefore, we let the ver¬ 
tical lines represent the different car¬ 
bon contents which steel might have, 
and the horizontal lines the different 
degrees of temperatures through which 

-37— 


we might desire to heat the steel under 
discussion and then plotted the pheno¬ 
menon described above we would have 
a picture something as follows: 



.00 .15 .30 45 .60 75^.90 /.05 /.20 

% Carbom 


Now all that picture means is that 
as we heated up a piece of simple carbon 
* tool steel containing 0.9% C, we dis¬ 
covered a certain very noticeable re¬ 
action which occurred just about half 
way between 1250 degrees and 1350 
degrees Fahrenheit, which we decided 
to call the point of recalescence, and 
then on further heating of the piece 
no other such phenomenon was no¬ 
ticed. 


-38— 














Now let us go through the same 
experiment with a piece of steel con¬ 
taining .45% C. Yes, just as before, 
as the temperature 1250 degrees Fah¬ 
renheit is reached we note all the 
strange symptoms which are charac¬ 
teristic of the point of recalescence and 
then, just as we are about to decide that 
it is hardly necessary to go further we 
notice that the pyrometer needle has 
again come to rest, but that this time 
it is registering 1390 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. Therefore, it would seem as if 
this piece had two critical ranges in¬ 
stead of one and we are now quite 
ready to again proceed with our heat¬ 
ing to see if anything else occurs. 
However, as nothing does happen we 
turn to our picture and plot the two 
points just observed, together with the 
one point found on our first investiga¬ 
tion, and the. drawing then looks some¬ 
thing as follows: 


—39— 


/700° 



.00 .IS .30 ,4S 60 7S .90 /OS /.10 

°/oCa*BO* 


Now let us take a piece of carbon 
steel as before, but this time con¬ 
taining .15% carbon, and again pro¬ 
ceed with our observations. Again the 
needle of the pyrometer records the 
point of recalescence and also the point 
designating the second range of critical 
temperature, but this time strange to 
say, as the test piece continues to ab¬ 
sorb heat, a third critical range is reeis- 
tered, all of which when added to our 
former picture gives a result something 
as follows: 


40 —■ 















/700° 


1600 ' 


1500 ' 

Or 

$ 

/4-00° 

X 

X 

ft 

<J300‘ 


/ZOO' -------- 

.OC ,/S 30 4S .60 .75 30 /.OS /.£C 

% Carbon 


FT 







—®— i 
/ 
i 
i 

i 

\ 

T, 





/ 

1 

l 




\ 

\ 

\ 




1 

1 f 
!* 


<F=? 


i — 

P96' 

■v 

V 

* 

■V 

V. 

^ 

t 

i 

i 

i — 


WA/ 

> - 

1430° 

- -< 

► — —< 

>— — 

► — 

p- - * 

► - a 


By repeating the operations as out¬ 
lined above, with pieces of steel con¬ 
taining various percentages of carbon 
from zero to 1.25% and by plotting the 
different critical temperatures so ob¬ 
tained, we finally obtain a chart which 
graphically expresses the critical ranges 
of iron and steels due to the variation 
of the carbon content. With very low 
carbon steel it is interesting to note 
that the first critical point would not 
occur until 1395 degrees Fahrenheit 
was reached. 


— 41 — 















Metallurgists have long designated 
the lines so obtained by letters, “r”, 
standing for, “refroidissment”, which 
is the French word meaning “cooling", 
the suffixes 1-2-3 simply standing for 
the lines in the order drawn. 

From the completed chart it is 
further evident that our first piece con¬ 
taining 0.9% carbon in one way is the 
most interesting of all since it is the 
only case where only one point of criti¬ 
cal temperature occurs. 

It will be noticed from the chart that 
steels containing less than .10% carbon 
have no point Arl and it is therefore 
undoubtedly due to the carbon content 
that this, the point of recalescence, oc¬ 
curs. From tests which we made with 
the magnet we would also find that 
the temperatures at which loss of mag¬ 
netism occurs are those designated by 
the line Ar2, whereas the loss of 
ability to conduct an electric current 
occurs at the point designated Ar3. 
In steels containing .45% carbon to 
.75% carbon loss of magnetism and loss 


— 42 — 


of ability to conduct an electric current 
occur at the same points designated on 
our chart by the line Ar3-2; whereas 
in the steel containing .90% carbon— 
all these changes take place at the same 
time. 

Nc-w, as we concluded before, it is 
evident that some internal change must 
have taken place in the steel itself, and 
as we know that the chemical content 
does not vary, it is further evident that 
the change must be of a physical na¬ 
ture, or as in the language of the 
Metallurgist, an “allotropic change". 
Therefore, another conclusion which 
we can draw at this point is that a very 
much more thorough investigation is 
required for the proper handling of 
steel at high temperatures than a mere 
knowledge of the chemical analysis of 
the same. 

There is one very fortunate circum¬ 
stance connected with the passing from 
one of these allotropic changes to 
another, and that is that the effecting 


— 43 —• 



of one of these changes takes time. It 
does not take a very long time, how¬ 
ever, for in some instances the change 
is affected in a very small fraction of 
a second, while rarely more than one 
or two seconds are required. The 
higher the temperature the quicker the 
change. 

Would it not be interesting if we 
had been so constructed as outlined in 
the beginning of this little volume; 
that we could have withstood the high 
temperatures in which some of these 
very interesting changes occur, because 
we could then handle the steel, examine 
it and experiment with it at our leisure. 
However, such not being the case, we 
will have to derive some other means 
for “catching" the steel while it is in 
one of these interesting conditions, and 
then bringing it in its entrapped condi¬ 
tion down to room temperature. How 
shall we do it? Well, we remember 
that we said it took time to effect the 
changes under discussion and further¬ 
more we remember that the changes 


— 44 — 


can only take place when the steel is 
within the proper critical range. 
Therefore, if we could do something 
to lower the temperature of a piece of 
steel while in one of the critical ranges 
before the steel had time to effect the 
usual allotropic change of form, we 
might be able to catch a piece of steel 
while in one of these unusual condi¬ 
tions, before it had really had time to 
get back to normal. 

Therefore, let us place a piece of .9% 
carbon tool steel in the heating furnace 
and bring it up to and bevond the point 
of recalescence. Now, grasping the 
piece firmly in a pair of tongs with all 
possible speed we plunge it into a near¬ 
by pail of ice water, keeping the steel 
constantly in motion. Almost instantly 
the steel becomes black and within a 
few seconds is actually brought down 
to room temperature. 

Now let us take the steel out and 
examine it. The act of tapping it on 
the anvil in order to knock off the sur¬ 
plus water gives us a hint that our test 

—45— 


piece has undergone some sort of a 
change. For now it rings with a bell¬ 
like clearness and gives the hammer 
with which we strike it a quick snap¬ 
ping rebound which in itself indicates 
great hardness. Next, we test the 
piece with a hardened steel file with 
which we could easily have made a 
deep ridge before we attempted the 
heating operation and to our surprise 
the file has as little effect as if it had 
been made of wood. And to our sur¬ 
prise on closer examination, we actual¬ 
ly find that our test piece has scratched 
the file—surely it must be very hard. 
We are convinced that some marked 
change must have taken place. What 
can it be? Why it must be that due 
to the rapid cooling in the pail of ice 
water we brought the temperature 
of the test piece down below the critical 
range before the abnormal condition 
at which it existed while at and above 
the critical range had found time to 
change back to its former condition. 
And we remember that if one of these 


— 46 — 



allotropic changes is going to take place 
at all, nature says it must do so while 
the steel is within the critical range 
and therefore having forced the steel 
through that critical range which 
separates one allotropic condition from 
another, before it had found time to 
effect its desired change, we managed 
to entrap the abnormal condition so 
that we could see it and feel it and 
get familiar with it at room tempera¬ 
ture. 

If we so desire we can now make 
other hardness tests on our piece of 
steel at our leisure. For these scien¬ 
tists have invented several machines. 
One of the most common is called the 
scleroscope in which a hardened steel 
ball is allowed to drop from a given 
height on to the piece of steel to be 
tested. Then the rebound of the ball 
is carefully noted. The higher the re¬ 
bound, the harder the piece. That is 
natural is’nt it? We know that if the 
ball were allowed to drop on butter, 
it wouldn’t rebound at all, because the 


— 47 — 


butter is so soft. A piece of wood 
would possibly record a very tiny re¬ 
bound, while a piece of hardened tool 
steel would effect a very material action 
of the scleroscope ball, thus indicating 
extreme hardness. 

Now let us take our test piece to 
the grind stone and grind it down to 
the shape of a cutting tool. It is ne¬ 
cessary to resort to the grind stone, in 
order to get the desired shape, because 
of course, our test piece is far too hard 
to cut with any other metal. After 
having produced a tool of the desired 
shape and size, let us fasten the same 
securely into the carriage of a lathe, 
and then upon applying the cutting 
edge to a revolving piece of cast iron, 
or soft steel, or even to a piece of the 
very same grade of steel out of which 
the tool was made, only while it is 
still in the softened or annealed condi¬ 
tion, we find that it is capable of easily 
and quickly cutting out a good sized 
ribbon of chips from the metal which 
is to be machined. 


48 — 


However, we are soon confronted 
with a new difficulty, for as the cut 
progresses, our tool runs into a rough 
spot which causes it to tremble and 
chatter and then suddenly our tool 
cracks in two in the middle and is at 
once completely ruined. 

It is evident that as we are able to 
increase the desirable element of hard¬ 
ness in a piece of tool steel, we also 
automatically increase the undesirable 
element of brittleness, and therefore 
some new method must be devised 
which will allow a sufficient degree of 
hardness to allow the tool to cut other 
metals and at the same time not cause 
so much brittleness that it will crack 
in two at the first rough spot which it 
encounters. 

One method of assisting the tough¬ 
ening of a piece of hardened tool steel 
is accomplished by the process of 
“drawing 1 ’. This simply means heat¬ 
ing the piece of hardened tool steel 
up to some fairly warm temperature, 
which of course must be kept well be- 


49 — 



low the critical range (at which the 
steel would jump at the chance to 
quickly change back into one of its 
softer allotropic forms) and then keep¬ 
ing the steel at this drawing tempera¬ 
ture for a while until the unusual 
strains and stress caused by the rapid 
cooling' have had an opportunity to 
have become somewhat relieved. 
Therefore, the process of “drawing” is 
quite as important as is the first act 
of hardening itself, and great care must 
be exercised in undertaking the same. 


— 50 — 


CHAPTER IV. 


HIGH SPEED STEELS. 

After the processes of hardening and 
drawing our sample of simple carbon 
tool steel have become thoroughly 
mastered, it might seem that all which 
was desired had been accomplished and 
that we could go on indefinitely making 
and using our simple carbon steel tools. 
However, when the extraordinary de¬ 
mands of modern industry required 
faster and faster cutting speeds, and 
deeper and deeper cuts, we commenced 
to realize that our familiar carbon tool 
steels would not fill the bill. This was 
due to the fact that as the tools be¬ 
came pressed with the faster speeds 
and deeper cuts, they could not do their 
work without becoming over-heated by 
the friction caused by the work of up¬ 
setting the chip and therefore the criti¬ 
cal temperature was rapidly approach¬ 


es 1— 


ed. Of course we know that if this 
temperature should be reached the 
steel would quickly lose its hardness 
and its cutting edge would therefore 
be completely ruined. 

Therefore, it was necessary to de- 
velop a new kind of steel to meet a 
new and severe condition and accord¬ 
ingly the mother of experiment and 
invention gave birth to the now fam¬ 
ous “High Speed" Steel. 

The general principles applying to 
the hardening and drawing of High 
Speed Steel are in many ways the same 
as described above for the simple car¬ 
bon steel, except that as we begin to 
add various elements other than carbon 
to the melt, the resulting alloy becomes 
more and more complex in its form and 
reactions and therefore its heat treat¬ 
ment causes greater and greater study 
and skill in its successful undertaking. 

It is generally known among tool 
hardeners that it is necessary to heat 
the tool to a higher degree of tempera¬ 
ture in order to secure proper hardness 


— 52 — 


when using- High Speed Steel than it 
is when a simple Carbon Tool Steel is 
employed. We are told that the in¬ 
troduction of certain elements into the 
melt of a simple Carbon Tool Steel 
has the tendency to change the critical 
range. Of course, the formulas used 
in the manufacture of any high grade 
High Speed Steel contain very appre¬ 
ciable amounts of various elements 
other than Carbon which materially 
effect the property which the steel will 
have when hard. The effect which 
these elements appear to produce in the 
period of critical range can be seen 
from figure 7. 


%000 


1900 

/soo ■ 

1700 

1600 

of ISOO 

X 

^ 1400 

£ 1300 

Woo 

j/oo 

7000 



He* 

TI Alt 

Afl 

o On 

3Z.//V 

G 




H 

Of 

ftWl V 

lf>ff 

n Sr 







Snn 

H//V 

/A' 






Ftf 




























































ZS SO 75 100 /Z5 ISO I7S ZOO 


Tine Seco /vos 

— 53 — 






















In this case an experiment was made 
with a piece of High Tungsten High 
Speed Steel similar to the experiment 
which was described in detail above with 
the test piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel. 
The readings of the pyrometer were care¬ 
fully recorded and when plotted on the 
graph sheet produced the picture under 
discussion. 

Here it will he noticed that the vivid 
reaction, which we might have expected 
would occur as the temperature indi¬ 
cating the first critical range was reach¬ 
ed, was materially reduced. This 
might lead us to suspect that the de¬ 
sired allotropic change had not com¬ 
pletely taken place at this point. In 
fact we noticed that the pyrometer 
needle did not record a vivid critical 
point until a very much higher tem¬ 
perature was reached. All of these 
observations serve as a possible ex¬ 
planation or indication of why it is ne¬ 
cessary to employ very much higher 
temperatures in the hardening of High 
Speed Steel than it is in the hardening 
of a piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel. 

— 54 — 


In a later chapter of this little volume 
we define Carbon Steels as those which 
do not contain enough of any element 
other than carbon to materially affect 
the physical properties which the steel 
will have when hard. High Speed 

Steels which are one of a very impor¬ 
tant group of special alloy steels, are 
those steels to which some element 
other than carbon has been added in 
sufficient amount to materially effect 
the physical properties which the steel 
will have when hard. 

The element which stands out alone 
as the most vital and important one as 
affecting the wonderful and highly de¬ 
sirable features looked for in High 
Speed Steels is Tungsten. We will dis¬ 
cuss the various effects which the dif¬ 
ferent elements give to the different 
alloy steels in a later chapter, but for 
the present we will confine ourselves 
to a brief discussion of the heat treat¬ 
ment of the now famous modern High 
Speed Steel. 


— 55 — 



High Speed Steel. Carbon .58%. Structure: 
Very fine nearlitic condition, with particles 
of free carbide. Mag. 500 x 


As previously suggested the pressing 
demand of modern industry for quicker 
work, greater efficiency and enormous¬ 
ly increased out-put of product, gave 
rise to the necessity of producing far 
more remarkable tools than was pos¬ 
sible with the old fashioned carbon tool 
steel. Therefore it became necessary 
to produce a steel which could be rend¬ 
ered sufficiently hard to cut deep fur¬ 
rows in the various metals which have 
to be machined and, which could be 

— 56 —• 






made sufficiently tough to stand the 
enormous cutting strains and chatter 
and vibration of the machine, and at 
the same time maintain all these char¬ 
acteristics when the work done by up¬ 
setting the chip of the machined mem¬ 
ber actually rendered the cutting edg'e 
of the tool red hot. 

After the seemingly impossible task 
of producing a steel to meet these terri¬ 
fic conditions had been successfully ac- 
complished, the next question which 
arose was to produce a machine which 
was sufficiently powerful to stand the 
work done by the tool, and so fast has 
been the progress made by the tool 
steel producer, that many of our mo¬ 
dern manufacturing industries of today 
are constantly having to introduce new 
and heavier machinery into their vari¬ 
ous machine shop and tool rooms in 
order to keep pace with the possibili¬ 
ties of the tool made from the modern 
High Speed Steel. 

Now, if we were to run an experi¬ 
ment with a test piece made from High 

—57— 


Speed Steel similar to the one which 
we ran on the simple Carbon Tool 
Steel, we would find that many of the 
same phenomena previously noticed 
would again be recorded. 

Probably the most important differ¬ 
ence would be the fact that instead of 
having to quench the same in water 
it would be desirable to use a bath of 
oil. In fact, water would cause the 
High Speed Steel to cool off far too 
quickly so that it would be likely to 
crack and be rendered useless. 

A peculiar action of the various ele¬ 
ments in High Speed Steel is very 
likely to materially retard the change 
of one allotropic form into another. In 
fact, the change is so slow that after 
a piece of High Speed Steel has been 
heated above the critical temperature, 
it will actually retain its hardened or 
austenetic condition even if allowed to 
cool in the air, and it would only be 
possible to get it back into its softened 
condition by the lengthy process of 
annealing. 


— 58 — 


Annealing is the process of undoing 
exactly what the act of hardening ac¬ 
complished. Long tubes are filled with 
the tool steel bars and sealed from the 
air and then placed into the annealing 
furnaces, wherein the annealing tem¬ 
perature is maintained for a sufficient 
number of hours, until the steel has 
had an opportunity to become 
thoroughly softened. 

As before stated “drawing" or “tem¬ 
pering" means the careful re-heating 
of the steel to 400 degrees Fahr. to 
600 degrees Fahr., thus allowing a 
slight “slipping" of enough of the high¬ 
er allotropic solution to a lower form, 
which it is always eager to accomplish 
at temperatures near the point of re- 
calescence. This, of course, relieves 
the excess brittleness of the hardened 
steel. 

Annealing is the complete release of 
the higher allotropic form of the solu¬ 
tion and the “trapped" carbon which 
allows of their return to the normal 


- 59 - 


condition of pearlite and alpha iron. 
Therefore, it is necessary to heat the 
steel above the point of recalescence 
and cool more or less slowly. Differ¬ 
ent speeds of cooling give different 
grain, size, structure and physical pro¬ 
perty. 

This explanation of hardening, which 
is known as the “allotropic theory” is 
not universally accepted, although it 
is difficult to find a better or more com¬ 
plete explanation of the remarkable 
phenomena involved. However, the fact 
remains that the great accomplishments 
which have been made by the men of 
science and understanding have caused re¬ 
markable results to have taken place in 
the manufacturing world of today and 
the fine and obscure lines which these 
patient and careful laborers are con¬ 
tinually drawing upon the map of know¬ 
ledge are doing much to make the 
world a better and safer and more 
wonderful place in which to live. 


— 60 — 


CHAPTER V. 


THE GENERAL EFFECT OF THE MORE IM¬ 
PORTANT ELEMENTS IN TOOL STEELS. 

We know that all metals of engineer¬ 
ing nature are crystalline in character, 
that is, the crystals form when the me¬ 
tal solidifies. If these crystals were 
free it would be easy to determine de¬ 
finitely just what properties the metal 
would have. However, the crystals are 
not free, but exist in the steel in com¬ 
bination with many other types of 
crystals. This results in many com¬ 
plicated and complex possibilities in the 
finished product, and will bring us pre¬ 
sently to the subject of “Alloy Steels". 

CARBON STEELS. 

Carbon Steels are those which do 
not contain enough of any element 
other than carbon to materially affect 
the physical properties which the steel 

— 61 — 


will have when hard. Carbon is one 
element used above all others by manu¬ 
facturers in getting required physical 
properties. An increase of one hun¬ 
dredth of one per cent (.01%) gives a 
tensile strength of about one thousand 
pounds per square inch, but even this 
amount of carbon also regularly de¬ 
creases the ductility of the finished 
product. When steel is heated red hot 
and plunged into water, the carbon in 
the metal unites with the iron in some 
peculiar way so that it produces a com¬ 
pound of extreme hardness. If the 
steel contains nine-tenths of one per 
cent (.90%) of carbon, a sharp point 
so quenched will almost scratch glass. 
With one per cent (1.00%) of carbon 
it reaches nearly its limit of hardness. 
Now carbon steels with this percent¬ 
age carbon can be used for some of 
the harder tools, which do not require 
much ductility or toughness, but with 
higher carbon contents than this per¬ 
centage, the brittleness increases so 
fast that the usefulness of the metal 
is decidedly limited. 

— 62 — 


Therefore, when the steel must 
meet requirements other than just that 
of hardness, such as, strength, ductility, 
toughness, resistance to repeated 
shock, “red hardness", etc., then it is 
necessary to resort to other means and 
combinations for obtaining the requir¬ 
ed needs. It is to be remembered that 
such methods and combinations will 
materially increase the cost of the final 
product. 

ALLOY STEELS. 

What is an alloy steel? The 
general definition of an alloy steel is, 
“a solidified solution of two or more 
metallic substances". The Interna¬ 
tional Committee upon the nomencla¬ 
ture of iron and steel defines alloy 
steels as “those steels which owe their 
properties chiefly to the presence of an 
element (or elements) other than car¬ 
bon". 

This latter definition more nearly 
applies to our case, but it must be born 
in mind that the distinction between an 
element added merely to produce a 

—63— 


slight benefit to ordinary carbon steel, 
and the very same element added to 
produce an alloy steel itself, is some¬ 
times a very delicate one. For ex¬ 
ample : Manganese is added in 

amounts usually less than 1.50% to all 
Bessemer and Open-Hearth Steels, for 
the purpose of getting rid of oxygen, 
and neutralizing the effect of the sul¬ 
phur. But this does not produce an 
Alloy Steel. When we make “man¬ 
ganese steel" containing 10 to 20% 
manganese, the material then has pro¬ 
perties quite different from the same 
steel without the manganese, and we 
then have a Manganese Alloy Steel. 

Thus, for our purpose, we may 
consider an alloy steel as being one to 
which some element other than carbon 
has been added in sufficient amount to 
materially affect the physical proper¬ 
ties which the steel will have when 
hard. 

HIGH SPEED STEELS. 

High Speed Steels are perhaps the 
most important of alloy steels, and de- 


— 64 — 


rive their name from the fact that they 
can be used as cutting tools when the 
cut on the machined member is being 
made at a high speed. This, of course, 
subjects the tool to severe operating 
conditions, which simple carbon steels 
could not stand. These steels have 
other notable characteristics, among 
which is that of “self-hardening” or 
“air-hardening”, as it is sometimes 
called. This means, when the steel 
cools naturally in the air, from a red 
heat or above, it is not soft like ordi¬ 
nary steel, but is hard and capable of 
cutting other metals. 

Another striking characteristic of 
high speed steels is their ability to 
maintain a sharp cutting edge while 
heated to a temperature far above that 
which would at once destroy the cut¬ 
ting ability of a simple tool steel. Be¬ 
cause of this property, a tool made of 
high speed steel can be made to cut 
continuously at speeds three to five 
times as great as that practicable with 
other tools. The result of the friction 


— 65 — 


of the chip on the tool may cause the 
tool to become red hot at the point on 
top where the chip rubs hardest, and 
the chip may, itself, by its friction on 
the tool, and the internal work done on 
it, by upsetting it, he heated to a blue 
heat, or even hotter. 

ELEMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN 
ALL STEELS. 

There are certain elements which 
are practically always found in any kind 
of steel. These elements are capable 
of producing* many varied effects on 
the finished product. They are Iron, 
Carbon, Manganese, Silicon, Phos¬ 
phorous and Sulphur. 

IRON. 

The base of all steels is Iron. It 
goes without saying that this element 
should be obtained in the best and 
purest state possible. Probably the 
best “base" iron comes largely from 
Sweden, which country seems to have 
produced the highest quality of iron 
on the market today. 


— 66 — 


CARBON. 

Carbon has already been discussed 
under Carbon Steels, although, of 
course, its importance in Alloy Steels 
must not be under-estimated. The 
proportion of carbon aimed at in high 
speed tool steels is about 0.65%, which 
in simple steel would not be enough to 
give the maximum hardness, even if 
the steel were heated above the critical 
point and quenched in water, and still 
les,s so when the steel is cooled as slow¬ 
ly as these steels are in their treatment. 
This shows that the carbon element 
acts in a different way from what it 
does in simple carbon steels as pre¬ 
viously discussed. 

MANGANESE. 

Manganese Steel is a typical self¬ 
hardening steel and so, obviously, is 
any steel which is in the austenitic con¬ 
dition at atmospheric temperatures, 
that is to say, whose critical tempera¬ 
ture is below atmospheric temperature. 
Thus, self-hardening steels are non¬ 
magnetic. Because of its low-yield 

—67— 


point, manganese steel does not give 
satisfaction in many lines, for which 
otherwise it might be eminently fitted. 

Manganese used in small quanti¬ 
ties (.30% to 1.50%) will produce cer¬ 
tain desired effects. Under these con¬ 
ditions it acts as a purifier. And when 
added in the form of Ferro Manganese 
to a heat of steel it unites with the 
oxygen and transforms it to slag as 
oxide of manganese. There is also 
good reason for believing that man¬ 
ganese prevents the coarse crystalliza¬ 
tion, which impurities such as Phos¬ 
phorus and Sulphur would otherwise 
produce. Five per cent to 14% manganese 
renders the steel non-magnetic as well 
as a poor conductor of electricity. 

SILICON. 

The dividing line between silicon- 
treated steels and silicon-alloy steels is 
not clearly defined, but the latter are 
used for several important purposes. 

Such steel has been used in springs 
of the leaf type for automobiles and 
other vehicles, the silicon being con- 

— 68 — 


sidered to add slightly to the toughness 
of the springs. However, the most 
important use of steels of this type is 
probably in the manufacture of electri¬ 
cal machinery. It is possible to pro¬ 
duce a silicon-alloy steel which has not 
only a greater magnetic permeability 
than the purest iron, but also, a high 
electrical resistance. Its hysteresis is, 
of course, low, this property always ac¬ 
companying a high permeability. It 
therefore is a very valuable material 
for use in electro-magnets, and in elec¬ 
tric generating machinery, is the most 
efficient, material known. 

In silicon-treated steels, the silicon 
is used somewhat as a scavenger, al¬ 
though it also produces results some¬ 
what similar to manganese. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus has little effect upon 
the hot properties, but in the cold state 
makes the steel brittle and is of course 
highly undesirable although some 
writers have claimed that it adds to 
the tensile strength in about the same 
degree as carbon. 


- 69 - 


SULPHUR. 

Sulphur has just the opposite ef¬ 
fect of Phosphorus, and makes the 
steel crack while it is being' hot work¬ 
ed, although after the metal is cold it 
seems to have no particular effect up¬ 
on the physical properties. 

ELEMENTS WHICH HAVE BE¬ 
COME ESPECIALLY ASSO¬ 
CIATED WITH SPECIAL 
ALLOY STEELS. 

Such elements are: — Chromium, 
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium, 
Cobalt, Uranium, Titanium, Alumi¬ 
num, etc. 

CHROMIUM. 

Chromium is an indispensable con¬ 
stituent in modern high speed steel, 
and does not make a poor high speed 
steel, even when used alone. The chief 
effect which chromium produces in high 
speed steels is undoubtedly that of 
“hardening”. However, chromium, 
like carbon, will produce brittleness, if 
added in too large quantities, although 

—70—■ 



if kept down to between 2 to 5% it 
seems to allow the lowering of the car- 
bon element, while at the same time 
maintaining the desired hardening ef¬ 
fect, without causing undue brittleness. 
The great hardness in the face of an 
armor plate, and the great toughness 
in the back of the plate, also the superb 
properties in the projectile which at¬ 
tempts to pierce the plate, can all be 
induced in chromium steels to a degree 
unattainable by the use of any other 
single element. 

As a simple chromium steel the 
product may be used in five-ply plates 
for the manufacture of safes. These 
plates are made of five alternate layers, 
two of chrome steel and three of soft 
steel, and after having been hardened, 
offer resistance to the drilling tools em¬ 
ployed by burglars. Hardened chro¬ 
mium rolls are manufactured for use 
in cold-rolling metals. Files, ball and 
roller-bearings are other noted pro¬ 
ducts of this type of steel. It is the 
essential constituent of those steels 
which neither rust nor tarnish. 


— 71 — 


TUNGSTEN. 

It was soon found that the com¬ 
position of “self-hardening” steels was 
not the best one for high speed steels. 
Tungsten was discovered as an ele¬ 
ment which gave the steel properties 
of hardness and toughness at a red 
heat. After the peculiar heat treat¬ 
ment had been learned, and the pres¬ 
ence of manganese or chromium in 
addition to the tungsten was shown to 
be unnecessary in appreciable amounts, 
it was found that more durable quali¬ 
ties could be obtained by increasing 
the percentage of tungsten, while at 
the same time the carbon element was 
greatly reduced. 

The best grade of High Speed Steel 
ought to have a tungsten content of 
about 18.00% and a carbon content of 
about 0.65%. Thus whenever a steel is 
needed which must operate under es¬ 
pecially severe conditions, this would 
be the steel to use. Such conditions 
are usually met in the case of rapid 
turning, boring, planing, slotting and 

—72— 


shaping tools, also with twist drills and 
all forms of milling cutters, gear cut¬ 
ters, taps, reamers, special dies, etc. 

MOLYBDENUM. 

Molybdenum was once thought of 
as being somewhat in a class with 
tungsten, but its use in high speed tool 
steels is being generally discontinued. 
The reason for this is that it was found 
that in rapid steels this element caused 
irregular performance, such as large 
variations in the cutting speeds which 
they would stand. This element is 
also likely to make the steels seamy 
and contain physical imperfections. 
Molybdenum steels were also found to 
crack on quenching, and possess decid¬ 
ed variations in internal structure. 

VANADIUM. 

Vanadium steels are still in their 
infancy. Therefore, the true value of 
this element in rapid steels must pro¬ 
bably be held as not yet fully deter¬ 
mined. With the single exception of 
carbon, no element has such a powerful 


— 73 — 


effect upon steel as vanadium, for it is 
only necessary to use from 0.10 to 
0.15% in order to obtain very notice¬ 
able results. In addition to acting as 
a very great strengthener of steel, es¬ 
pecially against dynamic strains, vana¬ 
dium also serves as a scavenger in get¬ 
ting rid of oxygen and possibly nitro¬ 
gen. It is also said to decrease segre¬ 
gation, which we may readily believe, 
as most of the elements which quiet the 
steel have this effect. 

“Vanadium Steels" demand a 
somewhat higher price than do those 
steels which do not contain this ele¬ 
ment in appreciable amounts. It is, of 
course, especially useful for all pur¬ 
poses where strength and lightness are 
desired, such as springs, axles, frames 
and other parts of railroad rolling 
stock, and automobiles. 

COBALT. 

The valuable effect of cobalt is 
claimed to be that it increases the red 
hardness of high speed tool steel, en- 


— 74 — 


abling the steel to cut at a higher 
speed. However, this element much 
resembles nickel, which has been large¬ 
ly condemned as not being a desirable 
ingredient for high speed tool steels, 
because it has the effect of making the 
edge of the finished tool soft or 
Heady”. 

URANIUM, TITANIUM AND 
ALUMINUM. 

These elements are generally classed 
as scavengers, although recently im¬ 
portant claims have been advanced for 
their effect upon the physical properties 
of steel. This is especially true for the 
first two. In present practice, how¬ 
ever, they are used almost entirely as 
deoxidizers or cleansers, and are added 
to the metal for this purpose only. 

IMPURITIES. 

Phosphorus, Sulphur and Copper 
are the most noted impurities which 
occur in steel. The first two are prac¬ 
tically always present in greater or 
smaller amounts as the case may be. 


— 75 — 


The best processes of tool steel manu¬ 
facture are capable of producing steels 
with no copper. While Aluminum is 
not generally classed as an impurity, 
it nevertheless sometimes shows up in 
the finished product when its presence 
is not desired, and therefore, might be 
considered an impurity. 

Combinations of iron with some or 
all of the above elements in the form 
of slags and oxides are other well 
known impurities. 

From the forgoing pages it must be 
evident that producing a steel with 
exactly the correct chemical content is 
only one step towards securing a satis¬ 
factory product. However, it might be 
well if we were to briefly sum up a 
few of the more important features of 
our discussion on this interesting sub¬ 
ject. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

The heat treatment of tool steels is of 
the utmost importance. Tool makers 
of the old school proved their ability 

— 76 — 


to accomplish certain desired results in 
the art of heat treatment without really 
fully understanding* exactly how or 
why they were able to do so. Today, 
however, progressive manufacturers 
are using the results of research and 
such thorough scientific investigation 
that the process has become far more 
complicated and complex, and the re¬ 
sults obtained are correspondingly 
more remarkable. 

Chemically perfect steel may be 
easily and completely ruined during 
the process of melting, cogging, roll¬ 
ing, hammering, annealing, heat treat¬ 
ing and tempering. It is the business 
of the steel manufacturer to carefully 
guard his product up through the pro¬ 
cess of annealing, but it usually falls to 
the tool maker to undertake the deli¬ 
cate operations of heat treatment and 
tempering. 

HARDENING. 

The application of heat alone to 
steel can very materially affect the 


— 77 — 


condition of the structure of the metal, 
either with or without simultaneous 
mechanical treatment. Depending up¬ 
on the degree of heat, the rate of heat¬ 
ing and cooling and the duration of 
such treatment, this application may be 
decidedly beneficial or harmful as the 
case may be. 

We now know that when steel is 
heated above the critical point, and is 
then allowed to rapidly cool, a very 
marked hardness in the metal is pro¬ 
duced. The degree of hardness so at¬ 
tained will, in general, vary directly 
with (1) the percentage of carbon, (2) 
the rate of cooling, (3) and the tem¬ 
perature above the critical point from 
which the cooling takes place. When 
the steel comes from the rolling mill 
and from the finishing hammers it is 
in this hardened condition. Therefore, 
in order to render it soft and ductile 
enough to cut and work up into certain 
desired shapes, sizes and tools, it is 
necessary to subject the steel to the 
process of annealing. This operation 

— 78 — 


is usually undertaken by the steel pro¬ 
ducer, under which circumstances he 
is able to control his product through 
this delicate procedure, and deliver the 
same to his customers in the best pos¬ 
sible condition for their use. 

ANNEALING. 

Annealing* has for its object: (1) 
Completely undoing* the effect of hard¬ 
ening*, leaving the steel soft and ductile 
(2) refining* the grain, in which case 
the crystals are allowed to re-arrange 
and re-adjust themselves, usually grow¬ 
ing to a rather large size (3) and re¬ 
moving* strains and stresses caused by 
too rapid cooling. Such cooling 
strains are particuarly likely to exist 
where the rate of cooling is different in 
different parts of the bar, but the pro¬ 
cess of annealing ought to remedy any 
such condition, leaving the steel soft, 
ductile and of refined and uniform 
crystaline structure throughout. 

The process of annealing is easier 
to explain than it is to actually put 


— 79 — 


into practice. The steel is first packed 
in lime, charcoal, fine dry ashes or 
sand, and then sealed in long air-tight 
tubes or boxes. 

The whole receptacle is next slow¬ 
ly brought up to a dull red heat, of 
about 1500 degrees Fahrenheit. 

It is very important to heat the 
material uniformly all the way through, 
and then hold it in this condition from 
three to eight hours. Thus, allowing 
the slipping of one allotropic condition 
into another. 

The receptacle must be cooled 
equally slowly, either allowing the 
packed steel to cool slowly down with 
the furnace, or by placing the same in 
a soaking or cooling pit, which also 
accomplishes the desired result. 

After the receptacle has become 
entirely cooled it is opened and the 
steel unpacked and removed. The 
steel is then ready for its final inspec¬ 
tion before shipping to the tool maker. 


— 80 — 


TEMPERING. 

The process of tempering usually 
has to be undertaken by the tool maker 
or user after the annealed steel, which 
he received from the steel mill, has 
been cut up and shaped into the desired 
form and size. 

The main object of tempering 
steel is to re-harden the material to 
such an extent that it will cut other 
metals, retaining its desired shape 
size and cutting edge, while at the 
same time it must not possess too 
much brittleness. The treatment 
varies materially with different brands 
of steels. 

For the average grade of the best 
High Speed Steel containing from 16% 
to 18% tungsten, the tool should be 
brought very slowly up to a dull cherry 
red. It is usually considered good 
practice to first place the tool near 
or on top of the pre-heating furnace 
before actually placing it in the pre¬ 
heater, in order that the heating might 
be effected just as slowly as possible. 


— 81 — 


The pre-heating operation should 
bring the tool up to about 1600 to 1800 
degrees Fahrenheit, after which the 
tool should be placed in the high heat¬ 
ing furnace and brought up to 2300 
to 2400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a white 
sweating heat. Care should be taken 
not to allow the tool to remain in this 
condition for more than an instant, as 
it is then in a very critical condition 
and could be easily burned or ruined. 

Therefore, the tool should be im¬ 
mediately pulled from the furnace and 
plunged into a good clean oil bath, 
keeping it constantly in motion. 

As High Speed Steels are air-harden¬ 
ing steels, it is also the practice to 
harden these steels by simply placing 
the cutting edge in an air blast, which 
produces maximum hardness in the de¬ 
sired point and allows the body of the 
tool to cool at a little slower rate, thus 
slightly relieving the cooling strains 
and producing a little less brittleness 
therein. Such cooling strains can be 
relieved throughout the whole tool by 


• 82 — 


drawing the same back to about 400 
to 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and some¬ 
times as high as 1050 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit, depending upon the particular tool 
and its use. 

The treatment of Carbon Steels 
varies with each particular brand. 
Great care must always be taken to 
heat the steel uniformly, as a material 
which is heated unevenly will expand 
and contract unevenly and, in conse¬ 
quence, will crack when quenched. 

The steel should always be hard¬ 
ened on the rising heat, in general 
bringing the same slowly up to a dull 
cherry red, or to about 1450 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and then quenching in 
clear cold water, keeping the same in 
motion until the steel is cold. The 
temper should then be drawn accord¬ 
ing to the purpose of the tool, which 
could only be discussed for each parti¬ 
cular case. The following range of 
temperatures are interesting, as being 
approximately indicated by the thin 


— 83 — 


film of oxide tints which occur on the 
tool undergoing a tempering opera¬ 
tion : 

Pale Yellow, 428 Degrees Fahrenheit 
Golden Yellow, 

.469 Degrees Fahrenheit 

Purple.531 Degrees Fahrenheit 

Bright Blue, 550 Degrees Fahrenheit 
Dark Blue ..601 Degrees Fahrenheit 

CONCLUSION. 

The effects of annealing, rolling, 
hammering, treating and tempering are 
best understood by those manufactur¬ 
ers who make a specialty of supplying 
a high grade tool steel, and in general 
it would be well if customers would 
consult freely with the producers of 
these steels, before attempting* the deli¬ 
cate undertaking of Heat Treatment. 


— 84 — 




CHAPTER VI. 


WHAT TOOL STEEL IS DOING TOWARDS 
WINNING THE WAR. 

It hardly seems fitting that we should 
close these pages without giving our 
readers some little idea of just what the 
tool steel industry is doing for the suc¬ 
cessful conclusion of the great cause near¬ 
est our hearts. 

One of the first statements which we 
could make would be that every metal 
worker in the world absolutely requires 
some form of tool steel or special alloy 
steel in the manufacture of his product. 
Of course, a very great many manufac¬ 
turers other than the actual metal workers 
also need this same supply of tool steel 
in order that their production might not 
immediately cease. Volumns could be 
written on the vital importance of tools to 
industry in general, from the drills which 
drill out the hole in a hypodermic needle, 


— 85 — 


to a twelve-ton drop-forge steam hammer. 
But for the present we may confine our¬ 
selves to simply the briefest mention of 
the vast number of iron and steel products 
actually and vitally engaged in the prose¬ 
cution of the war. 

We are told that we need ships, yet the 
ship industry could not proceed a day if 
its supply of necessary tools was cut off. 
The overwhelming increase in the manu¬ 
facturing operations of the world which 
has taken place since the opening of the 
European War can better be imagined 
than explained, it being only necessary 
for us to point out here that the one ab¬ 
solute necessity which is common to all 
and required by all branches of such vast 
manufacture is the proper supply of ne¬ 
cessary tools. 

It has been the personal duty of the 
writer to make various visits to different 
Government shops and Arsenals as well 
as to the plants and shops of torpedo, 
shell and munition manufacturers and the 
vital part which the tools of production 
are playing in the great undertaking has 


— 86 — 


been forcefully impressed upon his atten¬ 
tion. 

1 he metals which are destined to play 
an active part in actual warfare are na¬ 
turally required to meet the most severe 
conditions imaginable. Thus we find the 
high manganese armor plate and the high 
chrome-manganese armor piercing pro¬ 
jectile. We find the new specifications 
for steel forging, for hulls and engines 
now have rigid chrome-vanadium and 
special nickle requirements, all of which 
means that the tools that do the machin¬ 
ing, planing, shaping, cutting, drilling, 
boring, reaming, stamping and many other 
operations must be made of a tougher 
and harder material than ever before. 

We know that for every man who may 
fight on the battle field, at least two men 
must labor in our shops and factories over 
mechanical operations. 

Those of us who have been in immedi¬ 
ate touch with some of the vital require¬ 
ments of the War and Navy De¬ 
partments in these strenuous days realize 


— 87 —• 


the shocking absence of the complete pre¬ 
paredness, which we must rapidly accom¬ 
plish if we are to come anywhere near 
supplying our own soldiers on the fighting 
front with the fighting machinery and 
supplies of which they are in such urgent 
need. We realize that after all these 
months of increased industrial prepared¬ 
ness, we are, therefore, still unprepared 
in the full meaning of the word. The 
very foundation of our structure shows 
a startling amount of unpreparedness. 
We like to gaze upon the exterior towers 
and battlements of a castle of prepared¬ 
ness, and these are wonderful and en¬ 
couraging to look upon but down 
below all these are certain neglected 
and unfinished pillars in the unseen cellar 
of that foundation, which threaten the 
stability of the entire mass. It is, there¬ 
fore, some of these fundamental details 
which have been neglected as we have 
beheld the vision of the super-structure 
above. Pershing needs, 1,500,000 boys 
in khaki and over the shoulder of each is 
his protection against the Hun. Every- 


— 88 — 


one of these rifles is a splendid monument 
of the accomplishment of tool steel and 
special alloy steel. 

Every day of our present existence it 
happens that over a million shells scream 
over the miles of battle line in France. 
This curtain of high explosive and shrap¬ 
nel is another direct expression of the 
wonders which the modern high speed 
and special alloy steel have accomplished. 
We are told that a 3" shrapnel shell con¬ 
tains seventy drilled holes or a drilling 
of 19*4" in depth. That means that 
1,600,000 feet or over three hundred miles 
of drilled holes are shot away every 
twenty-four hours on the battle fronts of 
Europe. 

In a publication “Fightine Industry" 
published by one of our largest twist drill 
companies in this country, we note that 
the drilled holes in various impliments of 
our militant harness are as follows: 


8" shrapnel shell. 70 

Springfield rifle. 94 

Torpedo .3466 

Machine gun. 350 


— 89 — 








Aeroplane .4089 

3-ton auto truek .5946 

Light ambulance.1500 

3" field gun.1280 

Gun caisson. 594 

Anti-air craft gun.1200 

Self-binder. 500 

Thresher. 420 

Motorcycle.1160 


Four million men must work with tools 
in order that two million men may fight 
in France. These men can not, “just be 
given a tool and told to use it." It is 
necessary that they have years of careful 
training and actual experience in order 
that they might effectively make use of 
the intricate tools and machinery which 
the mother of modern industry is striving 
to place in their hands. At present every 
tool steel mill in America is straining its 
furnaces, hammers and rolling mills to 
their maximum capacity. They are work¬ 
ing days, nights and Sundays and still the 
demand is far in excess of the supply. 
Conservative estimations show that with 
all the added machinery and equipment 
which is in the process of construction at 


— 90 — 











this time, it will still take at least two 
years and a half before the tool steel in¬ 
dustry of America will come any where 
near meeting the demand for its product. 

As we gaze with belated pride upon the 
huge structure of our present Prepared¬ 
ness, does it not seem strange to think 
that the most vital pillar of its whole 
foundation should have been forgotten 
and neglected so long and which is there¬ 
fore now caused to endure such an abnor¬ 
mal and terrific strain? We are at last 
forced to realize that tool steel is the very 
essence of our whole existence. 

Of course, the great importance of tool 
steel in this national emergency does not 
stop with the actual weapons of warfare. 
Besides the railroads, automobiles, tram- 
wavs, elevators, bridges, buildings, shoes, 
clothing and in fact, every branch of the 
intricate mass of manufactured products 
so vital to our daily existence, nations 
are crying for bread. Victory hangs on 
our food supply. Our threshing ma¬ 
chines, our reapers and our harvesting 
machinery are all working over time. 


— 91 — 


But before the threshing machines can 
thresh wheat and before the reapers can 
reap and before the tractors and other 
farm machinery can contribute their great 
service to humanity, it is necessary that 
the American production of tool steel 
must pass its rigid inspection and yield 
forth in full measure the s^reat service 
which it is called upon to give. 


— 92 — 


APPENDIX. 


ANALYSIS, USES AND HEAT TREATMENT OF 
VARIOUS GRADES OF TOOL STEELS. 

Providing the many complications and 
difficulties which accompany the melting, 
hammering, rolling, annealing, inspecting 
and finishing operations, have been suc¬ 
cessfully accomplished, the chemical 
analysis of the best grades of tool steel 
should come within the following limits: 


TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH 
SPEED STEEL. 


Carbon . 

Tungsten. 

Chromium. 

Vanadium. 

Phosphorus. 

Sulphur. 

Manganese. 

Silicon. 

Iron (by deduction) . . . 

USES. 


.66 % 
18.01 % 
4.50 % 
.98 % 
.023% 
. 021 % 
.285% 
.228% 
75.293% 


Turning, Boring, Planing, Slotting, 
Shaping Tools. Also Twist Drills, Mill¬ 
ing Cutters, Gear Cutters, Taps, Reamers, 
Special Dies, etc. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Heat slowly in pre-heater to 1700 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit. Then rapidly in super¬ 
heater to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit, taking 
care not to burn or fuse delicate projec¬ 
tions on special tools. Harden either in 
air blast, or in good clean oil; keeping 
tool in motion. In all cases merely the 
end of the tool to white heat. Draw in 
oil from 400 degrees Fahrenheit to 600 
degrees Fahrenheit. 


93 — 











TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF DIE 
STEEL FOR HOT WORK. 


Carbon .39 % 

Tungsten. 8.41 % 

Chromium. 2.10 % 

Phosphorus .019% 

Sulphur.017% 

Manganese .315% 

Silicon.234% 

Iron (by deduction).88.515% 


USES. 

Hot shear blades, hot punches, header 
and gripper dies; used in bolt and rivet 
making. Also excellent for compression 
sets and in general for all hot work. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Will stand high hardening heats, simi¬ 
lar to high speed steel, 1700 degrees 
Fahrenheit and then 2300 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. Harden either in air or oil. Keep 
away from water. Draw to 500 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


— 94 — 










TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL 
ALLOY STEEL. 


Carbon .78 % 

Vanadium.29 % 

Phosphorus.014% 

Sulphur.016% 

Manganese .324% 

Silicon.296% 

Iron (by deduction).98.28 % 


USES. 

Specially useful in tools subject to 
shock, such as hand and pneumatic chisels, 
boilermakers caulking tools and rivet sets. 
Also for cold upsetting dies, cold punches, 
shear blades and stamping dies. A 
special grade of this steel makes excellent 

taps. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Heat slowly to a low red, about 1400 
degrees Fahrenheit, or if low carbon con¬ 
tent to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit; being 
very careful not to over-heat. Quench 
in good clean tempered water; keeping 

tool constantly in motion. Draw from 
•/ 

250 degrees Fahrenheit to 400 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


— 95 — 









TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF FAST FIN¬ 
ISHING SEMI-HIGH SPEED. 


Carbon .. 1.28 % 

Tungsten. 3.56 % 

Phosphorus.021% 

Sulphur.019% 

Manganese .316% 

Silicon.271% 

Iron (by deduction).94.533% 


USES. 

Do not confuse the High Speed, al¬ 
though excellent for turning chilled cast 
iron, clean finishing cuts. Especially adapt¬ 
ed for taps and reamers, as well as for 
tools for brass, bronze, aluminum, copper 
and chilled roll turning. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Ideat slowly to full bright red, 1425 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit to 1500 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. Quench in luke warm water. Keep 
tool constantly in motion. Draw to not 
over 300 degrees Fahrenheit. 


— 96 — 









TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE 
CARBON TOOL STEEL. 


Carbon . 1.12 % 

Phosphorus.009% 

Sulphur.011% 

Manganese .254% 

Silicon.213% 

Iron (by deduction).98.393% 


USES. 

General tool room usage with moderate 
cutting speeds. Excellent lathe, planer, 
and shaper tools, drills, shear blades (for 
cold work only) punches, chisels, hies and 
mining tools. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Heat slowly to Low Red heat, approxi¬ 
mately 1375 degrees Fahrenheit (the 
higher the carbon the lower the heat). 
Care not to over-heat. Quench in good 
clean hike warm water. Draw to not 
over 350 degrees Fahrenheit. 


— 97 — 








TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF NON¬ 
SHRINKING OIL HARDENING 

STEEL. 


Carbon.91 % 

Phosphorus.016% 

Sulphur.019% 

Manganese . 1.62 % 

Silicon.31 % 

Iron (by deduction).97.125% 


USES. 

Threading dies, chasers, taps, reamers, 
and all master tools. For gauges, plugs, 
etc. Especially adapted for stamping, 
punching, trimming dies and many other 
uses where it is necessary to overcome 
shrinking, warping or change of shape. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Heat very slowly to pre-heating tem¬ 
perature of 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, then 
to hardening temperature from 1360 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit to 1425 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit, depending upon size of piece being 
treated. 

Harden in lard, linseed or cottonseed 
oil; preferably fish oil. Do not quench 
in water. 

Draw cutting tools, taps and reamers 
at 250 degrees to 300 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Large tools such as blanking and stamping 
dies at 400 degrees to 450 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit. 


— 98 —• 








TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL 
HOT WORK ALLOY STEEL. 


Carbon.86 % 

Chromium. 3.71 % 

Phosphorus .023% 

Sulphur.019% 

Manganese .381% 

Silicon.267% 

Iron (by deduction).94.740% 


USES. 

An excellent composition for hot work 
in service for grippers, headers, hot punch¬ 
es, hot shear blades and similar tools. Es¬ 
pecially valuable in structural steel and 
boiler shop work. Rivet sets and bull dies 
made from a steel of this composition 
ought to resist breaking and battering. 

HEAT TREATMENT. 

Very flexible hardening in air, oil or 
water. If air is used heat to 1675 degrees 
to 1750 degrees Fahrenheit and place 
under dry air blast, or stand in cool place. 
To harden in oil, heat to 1500 degrees 
to 1550 degrees Fahrenheit and quench 
in thin oil. To harden in water, heat to 
1475 degrees Fahrenheit to 1525 degrees 
Fahrenheit and quench in cool water. 
Draw from 250 degrees to 300 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 
















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